Basic Sources of Genealogical Information in Canada

This section describes the basic sources of genealogical information that are available and relevant for all Canadians. In each case, I describe the source, the type of information you can find in it, the period of time it covers and its geographic extent, if not all of Canada. Then I discuss its reliability as evidence, particularly for Aboriginal people, and how difficult or easy it is to find and use the records.

Oral History

Virtually all family history research begins with oral sources—information provided to the researcher by his or her own parents, grandparents and other relatives. This source is extremely valuable as living people remember a lot of information that has never been written down. Research would proceed very slowly and with great difficulty if you could not begin from this rich foundation. However, as with any information source, oral history is not a perfect source of information.
Scholars in several disciplines (including genealogists, anthropologists and historians) have discussed the strengths and weaknesses of oral history at great length, with much disagreement between and among them concerning its reliability as evidence.
Generally, oral history should be treated exactly as we do other sources. If the person giving testimony has personal direct knowledge of the events in question, then we have an original source providing primary information. If the person is relaying information that has been passed down through the generations, we treat it as a derivative source with secondary information.

We should use the same care we do with written sources, asking questions about how the person came to know the information, how many degrees removed from the eyewitness they are, how much time has passed between the event and when our source learned about it, in what context our source learned the story, whether any of the parties involved had reason to distort the information, and so on.
Keep in mind that in addition to living people, anthropologists, historians and other researchers have collected oral history interviews for many years, and you may be able to use these recorded interviews.

Please see Chapter 8 for the details of where you might find relevant oral history records.

Civil Registration

Civil registration records are collected by governments to document births, marriages and deaths. In Canada, responsibility for civil registration rests with the provinces and each province began collecting vital statistics information at a different date.
In Ontario, registration of births, marriages and deaths began mid-way through 1869.
In Quebec, church records were considered the official records until 1926, so there are no separate government records before this date.
New Brunswick required clergy to submit copies of records of baptism, marriage and burial records starting in 1888, but the law did not compel individuals to register, so many people who did not belong to a church or whose church did not perform baptisms (Baptists, Jews, etc.), were not recorded. Civil registration became compulsory only in 1920.
Nova Scotia began registering births, marriages and deaths in 1864, but stopped recording births and deaths in 1877 when the province believed the federal government was supposed to take over. This never happened, so there is a gap in birth and death records (but not marriages, these continued to be recorded), between 1877 and October 1908.
Prince Edward Island began registering births, marriages and deaths in 1906. Before that, churches were required to submit copies of marriage records, so marriage records are fairly complete back to the early 1800s.
Civil registration in Newfoundland and Labrador began in 1892. Before that date, only the churches recorded such events.

Enforcement wasn’t very thorough for the early years of civil registration, so many births, marriages and deaths went unrecorded even when it was officially compulsory. It seems that the most complete records are for marriages. Some areas were better than others. For example, people who lived in more remote areas, who had to travel further to reach government offices, didn’t comply as often.

Also, members of some religious groups were more compliant than others. For example, Roman Catholics tended to register less frequently, perhaps due to the misconception that they were exempt.
In addition, the federal government has been responsible for treaty or registered Aboriginal people since 1876. So, for a long time, the provincial governments weren’t sure whether they were still supposed to collect birth, marriage and death information about Aboriginal people, or whether the federal government was supposed to do this. In some cases, local Indian Agents didn’t realize that the births, marriages and deaths of all people were supposed to be registered with the province. So, many Aboriginal people are not recorded in the civil records. For example, I searched the Ontario civil registration records for 100 children listed in the 1901 census for Garden River (a village with many mixed-blood families) and found not a single one registered (at least not under the same name as they appeared in the census)!
The official provincial register books that researchers use are not true originals. They are copies made by clerks of the provincial registrar from the individual registers sent in by local registrars. The first copy was created when someone reported the event to the registrar of the town or township. Births were usually reported by the father, or sometimes by the doctor who delivered the child. Marriages were usually reported by the minister who performed the ceremony. Deaths were usually reported by the doctor who treated the deceased. Then, at the end of each year, the local registrar made a copy (by hand) of the register and sent it to the provincial registrar. Occasionally these local registers survive in regional or municipal archives, but mostly researchers must rely on the provincial register. As there is no motive for the registrar to falsify records, any difference between the local and the provincial registers is likely due to accidental copying errors. These errors might account for some of the missing records.
Errors could also have been introduced at the beginning, particularly if the report was given orally. A frequent source of this kind of error is in pronunciation and spelling of unfamiliar names. This is less likely to be a problem when the informant and the recording clerk speak the same language, but it can pose serious problems if they do not.

As official records, with virtually no cause for bias, civil registration records are generally considered credible and reliable sources of information. But, it is still important to know who the informant was. Generally, when it was a parent, spouse or child, the information is more likely to be accurate than if it was a doctor, minister or neighbour.
The biggest problems with civil registration records are the fact that they aren’t complete, and the fact that they start so late.

Whether or not old records are open to the public varies by province, but in all provinces, records of living or recently deceased people are restricted. So, if you need a birth or marriage record for someone who is alive or who died recently (each province defines “recently” differently), you will have to apply for a certificate and pay a fee to the relevant registrar’s office. The registrar will only send the record to you if you can prove that you are the next-of-kin.See Sections V and VI (** Add page references) for detailed information about the institutions and websites that provide access to civil registration records.

Censuses

Another important type of record is government census records. Census records are lists of people living in a certain place and time. This information is collected to help governments know how many people live in each area, what their ages are and other information to help them plan things like schools.
Census records help genealogists see “snapshots” of families, households and communities on particular dates. Depending on the date and place of the census, we may find lots of helpful information about our ancestors in these records.
Early census records in Canada generally recorded only the names of heads of households, and how many males or females of each age group lived in each household. These records are helpful, but limited, if it’s the wife or children you’re interested in.
The first every-name census in what would later become Canada was taken in 1666 in Quebec. The next one was taken in 1852. This census covered all of Canada West (now called Ontario) and Canada East (now called Quebec), Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and PEI. Unfortunately, most of the Nova Scotia census has not survived (only Halifax city and county, and Kings and Pictou counties survive), many parts of Quebec have not survived and the returns for major cities and some townships in Ontario have not survived.
A complete census was then taken every ten years in most of Canada. Prince Edward Island and Nova Scotia didn’t take another every-name census until 1871 (of which the majority is missing); Newfoundland and Labrador didn’t start taking censuses until 1911 (even that year’s records are mostly missing).

The information in most census records is second-hand, since the census taker made the record. However, the census taker was instructed to speak to a knowledgeable person in the household (usually the male head of the household or his wife) who ought to know the names, relationships and ages of the household members. So most of the information ought to be fairly reliable, if only approximate (in the case of ages). Starting in 1901, it became more common for heads of households to fill out their own forms.
The records available to the public are not originals, as the first copy was written by the enumerator on one page for each household. He then copied this information into a ledger form with one line per person, one household listed after another. However, this leaves much less room for error than if someone else did the copying.

Surrogate and Probate Court Records

Wills and intestate estate administration files are excellent sources of information about family relationships. In many cases, the writer of a Last Will and Testament will identify by name his spouse and each of his children. In some cases, other relatives will also be identified. Unfortunately, there are also cases where a man simply states that all his property should be divided equally among his children, without naming them.
The administrative files created when a person died without a will (intestate) can be even more helpful, as all of the legal heirs must be listed and statements of surviving kin are required to establish this. This can be particularly helpful for the identification of married daughters, as their married surnames are usually given and, sometimes, even their husband’s names.

An important limitation of surrogate and probate records is the fact that only people with significant amounts of property generally wrote wills or had their estates go through probate (filed in a court). Thus, people who didn’t have much property are rarely represented in these records. The exception to this principle is Quebec, where a much larger proportion of the population wrote wills. So, although their records are more difficult to search (multiple steps, some fees involved), you’re more likely to be successful.
Surrogate and probate records are generally available from the beginning of European settlement up to the 1920s (at least) from the provincial archives (generally on microfilm, so can be borrowed via inter-library loan). The exceptions are Nova Scotia, where they are filed with the individual probate courts and Quebec, where the situation is more complicated (multiple repositories, records of the last 100 years are still with notaries). More recent records (aside from Quebec’s) are usually filed with the relevant court. They are all indexed by the name of the deceased, so they are generally not difficult to find. Wills may also be found filed with land records when the estate concerned consisted primarily of land. (See Section II.G. (add page numbers) for a discussion of land records.)

See Section V (add page numbers) for details about institutions that hold surrogate and probate court records.

Newspapers

Another helpful source of genealogical information is the birth, marriage and death (BMD) announcements and obituaries published in newspapers. BMD notices usually provide the basic genealogical information about the event in question (names, date and place) and, in the case of death notices, sometimes relationships are described (names of all children, children’s spouses, grandchildren, siblings, etc).
Obituaries are different from death notices. Obituaries are written by reporters, not by the family. Generally, obituaries provide more biographical information and fewer family details than death notices.

The main problem with newspaper notices and obituaries is that, until fairly recently, very few people were recorded. Very prominent people and those who were publicly active in small towns tend to be represented most often. Those who lived in remote areas are distinctly underrepresented, as are the poor and minorities. Furthermore, birth, marriage and death notices only became regular features in newspapers in the latter part of the nineteenth century. One notable exception is the Nor’wester, a newspaper published in Winnipeg from 1859 to 1869 that contained many Western Métis birth, marriage and death notices.
Most old newspapers in Canada have been microfilmed and are available on loan from Library and Archives Canada, the relevant provincial archives, or the closest public library. Many birth, marriage and death notices in newspapers have been indexed and published. Searching for unindexed notices can take a long time if you don’t know the exact date of the event.

Church Records

Where civil registration records are not available, church records of baptism, marriage and burial are the next best evidence of the vital events of a person’s life. Baptism and marriage records also provide crucial relationship information.
The amount and type of information provided by church records varies enormously by religious denomination and by time period. Generally speaking, Roman Catholic records provide more detailed information and are more complete and well preserved than the records of other denominations. In the case of baptisms, Roman Catholic records generally provide both the birth date and the baptism date of the child, as well as the full names of both parents. In addition, godparents are frequently named. As godparents are often relatives, their names provide good clues for further research. In the case of marriages, Roman Catholic records generally provide the full names of the parents of both the bride and the groom. If any of the four parents were deceased at the time of the wedding, this is noted as well.
Records of Protestant denominations vary, but most baptism records do not provide more than the mother’s first name, and most marriage records provide only the names of the bride and groom and the witnesses. Some denominations, such as Baptists, do not practice infant baptism, so there may be no birth-related records in the church registers.
Earlier records of all denominations tend to provide less information than more recent records. In some cases, baptism records record only the fact that a male child of a certain man was baptised that day (no birth date, no child’s name, no mother’s name, no witnesses or sponsors!).
Keep in mind that not all children are baptised immediately after birth. The parents might have waited until the weather is better for travelling or until a clergyman visited their area. Some records include the birth date or the age of the child, but many do not. So don’t use a baptism date in place of a birth date.

Some church records also include lists of church members, which can prove residence. In the case of Aboriginal people, membership lists sometimes provide key information about clan and band membership. In rare and wonderful cases, both Christian and Aboriginal names are given.

Many early schools were established and run by churches, so records of these schools can also be found in church archives. School records might, for example, include the name of the child, his or her birth date, and parents’ names.
Special mention should also be made of the writings of early missionaries, especially the Jesuits (for example, The Jesuit Relations). These writings often provide a great deal of information about the Aboriginal people with whom the missionaries interacted. Sometimes they named specific individuals and described ceremonies (such as weddings) or conversions, which can be helpful for researchers. In at least one case, a Jesuit missionary compiled a series of genealogies of local families. Father Joseph Specht of the Sainte Croix Mission on Manitoulin Island gathered genealogies for individual Ojibway and Ottawa people of the various bands on Lakes Huron and Superior in 1908.
One of the greatest strengths of church records is the fact that these are often the earliest written records of individual Aboriginal people. This is because missionaries frequently visited and recorded vital events for people in communities that did not have any contact with civil authorities. In addition, in the early years of the mission records there are often groups of children who are all baptised together. Because of this, the baptism records often extend backwards in time to cover many people born well before the mission’s establishment in the area. For example, the Moose Factory register begins in 1805 with seven men recording the births of all of their children, going back as far as 1780.Church records are very reliable and credible as they are usually both original (not copies) and primary (recorded at the time, by people participating in the event).

The main limitation, in the case of Aboriginal people, is that frequently only Christian names are recorded, even when the people were usually known by their native names. And, of course, only Christian communities are represented.

Access to church records varies. Again, Roman Catholic records are the best, as most of these have been microfilmed and are available for borrowing between institutions and libraries. Many have also been transcribed, indexed and published, making access even easier. Some early Anglican records, such as those of the missions around Hudson Bay and at Red River, have also been filmed, but others have not. These are available through the relevant archdiocese of the church. Most Methodist records have also been filmed, but it is not clear whether these are available for borrowing beyond the United Church Archives.See Sections V and VI (** add pages) for contact information for the institutions that hold church records.

Land and Property Records

When the French and British first took control of the land in what is now Canada, the land was considered to be owned by the King or Queen. Until it was granted or sold to individuals it was called Crown land.
Early Crown land records held by provincial governments include a great many references to Aboriginal people. When members of Aboriginal bands entitled to reserve land allocations married non-Aboriginals (or non-Status Indians), there was often some disagreement over entitlement to the land, and thus documentation of the relationships was produced. This documentation can be found in correspondence with representatives of the Crown and the records of special commissions set up to handle disputes.
There are also inspection and valuation reports in the Crown land records. In cases where these cover regions settled by Aboriginal people, their names may be listed, often identifying them as members of a First Nation Band, Métis or White. These records can be helpful for establishing identity and residence, although they do not tend to describe relationships between individuals.
In addition, the federal government’s Department of Indian Affairs has a series of records for Indian Lands.
Land records need to be treated with caution because property is valuable, and there is good reason to lie to prove ownership. Also, only a small minority of Aboriginal people are recorded in land records. Finally, many land records are not well indexed, so they are difficult and time consuming to search .See Section V for contact information for the institutions that hold land records.

School Records

One often underused resource is school records. Where they are available, school records frequently include enrolment and attendance registers. These registers often give the names and ages of the students and sometimes their birth dates and parents’ names. As education is considered a provincial responsibility in Canada, most school records are found in provincial archives. However, many schools were run by churches, so education records can be found in religious archives as well.
These records are generally very credible for the basic information they provide (name, age, parents’ names), and can help fill in the gaps from church and civil registration records by providing the ages of children while they are young enough to be fairly accurate. Most of these records are originals.
Access to these records can be difficult as few are microfilmed, almost none are indexed, and researchers have to know the name of the school their ancestors attended before they can even start to search for relevant records.

Notarial Records

Notarial records are especially important for Métis families whose European ancestors were French-Canadian or based in Quebec. Notaries held a prominent place in the lives of French Canadians as they were involved in many matters that are considered government responsibility in other provinces. Thus these records include a wide range of documents including land deeds, marriage contracts, employment agreements, wills and other civil transactions. Many of these records are helpful to the genealogist, especially because women in Quebec were always identified by their full maiden names and sales of land required a man’s wife’s permission, so she is always included in deeds of sale. Deeds of donation (a way of giving away your land to your children before you die to avoid probate) are also helpful as they frequently name both parents and more than one child. These records are especially helpful in tracing the movements of Quebec-based fur traders, since most signed formal contracts with merchants or fur trading companies before heading to the northwest each season.
Notarial records are very solid, credible sources of information. As they are legal documents, produced by formally recognized officials, and kept in proper custody, they ought to be very well received by the courts.
Most of the original pre-1900 notarial records have been microfilmed and deposited with the nearest branch of the Archives nationales du Québec. Some have been indexed. However, they can be somewhat difficult to locate and the handwriting might be a challenge to read.

See Section V (** add pages) for contact information for the institutions that hold notarial records.

DNA Testing

Generally, what male-line (Y chromosome) tests provide is a report indicating the probability that a given two men (you have to compare two people, at least) have a common ancestor in the exclusively male line. They also say approximately how many generations ago the most recent common ancestor lived. For example, the most stringent tests can tell you that within a 95 per cent probability two men share a common male-line ancestor within the last six generations.
The female-line tests (mitochondrial DNA) generally provide a report indicating whether or not there is a 50 per cent probability that a given two people have a common ancestor in the exclusively female line within the last 28 generations.
Neither type of test can tell you specifically who your ancestor was. Both tests are more helpful for ruling out specific kinds of relationships than for identifying ancestors.
Even if these tests were applicable for some Métis researchers, given the wide range in possible “most recent common ancestor” generations, even the Y-chromosome test might not be considered acceptable in a court of law.

Generally, what male-line (Y chromosome) tests provide is a report indicating the probability that a given two men (you have to compare two people, at least) have a common ancestor in the exclusively male line. They also say approximately how many generations ago the most recent common ancestor lived. For example, the most stringent tests can tell you that within a 95 per cent probability two men share a common male-line ancestor within the last six generations.
The female-line tests (mitochondrial DNA) generally provide a report indicating whether or not there is a 50 per cent probability that a given two people have a common ancestor in the exclusively female line within the last 28 generations.
Neither type of test can tell you specifically who your ancestor was. Both tests are more helpful for ruling out specific kinds of relationships than for identifying ancestors.
Even if these tests were applicable for some Métis researchers, given the wide range in possible “most recent common ancestor” generations, even the Y-chromosome test might not be considered acceptable in a court of law.